Sample Word Studies from my commentary on the Pastorals

Command
Hope
Grace
Mercy
Peace

“Command” (1 Tim 1:1)

ἐπιταγή denotes an authoritative "command" carrying associations of divine and kingly orders. It is a forceful term, its verbal cognate, for example, being used of Jesus' commands to demons (Mark 1:27; Luke 8:3; see G. Delling, TDNT 8:36-37). In secular Greek it can refer to commands given by people and by gods (MM, 247), especially commands from oracles and the gods (LSJ, 663). Simpson refers to inscriptional data showing that the phrase κατ ʼ ἐπιταγήν, "because of the command," was a standard formula equivalent to "by order of" (24). In the LXX the verb form (ἐπιτάσσειν) occurs five times, describing a royal decree (Esth 1:8; 3:12; 8:8, 11; Dan 3:16). In Paul it denotes a command from God (Rom 16:26; 1 Cor 7:6, 25; 1 Tim 1:1; Titus 1:3), from himself (2 Cor 8:8), or the authority with which Titus is to declare Paul's instructions (μετὰ πάσης ἐπιταγῆς, "with all authority"; Titus 2:15). The actual phrase κατ ʼ ἐπιταγήν appears in five of these passages (Rom 16:26; 1 Cor 7:6; 2 Cor 8:8; 1 Tim 1:1; Titus 1:3). It occurs seven times in the NT, every time used by Paul.

Hope (1 Tim 1:1)

Jesus is further identified as ἐλπίδος ἡμῶν, "our hope." ἐλπίς, "hope," and ἐλπίζειν, "to hope," occur eighty-four times in the NT, fifty-five in Paul, eight in the PE. Jesus is "not merely the object of [our hope] . . . or the author of it . . . but its very substance and foundation" (Ellicott, 2). Unlike secular apathy and pessimism, Christian hope is sure. It is never a fearful dreading of what lies ahead; rather it is an eager and confident anticipation of what God has in store for believers. It is not so much a subjective emotion as an objective fact. It is sure because it is centered on Christ and is a gracious gift of God (cf. Rom 5:2, 5; 8:24, 25; 15:4, 13; E. Hoffmann, NIDNTT 2:242-43; Spicq, 1:316). Because "our hope" is centered on Christ, it is a title for him (1 Tim 1:1; cf. Acts 28:20; Col 1:27; esp. in Ignatius [Eph. 21; Magn. 11; Trall. salutation, 2; Phil. 11]). A true widow sets her hope on God (1 Tim 5:5); the rich should do likewise and not trust in riches (1 Tim 6:17). Paul's apostleship is "to further the faith of God's elect . . . in hope of eternal life" (Titus 1:1-2), and believers await their "blessed hope, the appearing of the glory of our great God and savior Jesus Christ" (Titus 2:13). Hope is the result of regeneration (Titus 3:5, 7; cf. 1 Pet 1:3), and as a consequence it affects the believers' conduct (cf. Rom 5:2-5; Ridderbos, Theology, 488-89) as they look forward to God's salvation, having their "hope set on the living God, who is the savior of all people" (1 Tim 4:10). Hope describes both Jesus (1 Tim 1:1; Titus 2:13) and the believer (1 Tim 4:10; 5:5; 6:17; Titus 1:2; 3:7). The hope of the OT and Judaism has come to fruition in Jesus Christ (cf. Ps 65:5, which combines the ideas of hope and salvation). See further A. Barr, "‘Hope' (ἐλπίς, ἐλπίζω) in the New Testament," SJT 3 (1950) 68-77; C. F. D. Moule, The Meaning of Hope (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1963).

The promise of hope was one of Christianity's most outstanding features in a world in which hope had little place. Popular belief was dominated by pessimism. The philosophers had dismissed the Olympian gods but had not replaced them with an alternative that provided hope for people. Most could see only the fear and senselessness of chance and the arbitrariness and finality of fate. Stoicism, perhaps the most influential philosophy among the cultured in the first century a.d., taught an apathetic determinism in which individual choice and freedom were absent; one must simply accept whatever fate decides. K. A. Kitchen cites the epitaph "I am of good courage, I who was not, and became, and now am not. I do not grieve"(ISBE 2:753). Magic and superstition also abounded. An example of the futility of the times is illustrated by the magical incantation to be used when approached by an unfriendly god: "Lay at once your right [fore-]finger upon your mouth and say, ‘Silence! Silence! Silence!' (a symbol of the living, incorruptible god). ‘Guard me, Silence!' Then whistle long, then sneeze, and say . . . and then you will see the gods looking graciously upon you" ("A Mithras Liturgy," in Barrett, New Testament Background, 132). Barrett omits what the person is to say, which A. Dieterich (Eine Mithrasliturgie [Leipzig: Teubner, 1903] 2-15) shows to be a conglomeration of sounds that appears to be gibberish. The world was without "hope and without God" (Eph 2:12; cf. 1 Thess 4:13). But "when the time had fully come, God sent forth his Son" (Gal 4:4) so that the indwelling Christ could become "the hope of glory" (Col 1:27). The world was without hope; the message that Jesus is "our hope" (1 Tim 1:1) stood out like a shining beacon in a dark world. For an excellent description of the hopelessness of the ancient world, see Angus, Environment of Early Christianity; see also Lohse, New Testament Environment, 226-32; R. Bultmann and K. H. Rengstorf, TDNT 2:517-33; E. Hoffmann, NIDNTT 2:238-44; K. A. Kitchen, ISBE 2:751-55.

“Grace” (1 Tim 1:2)

χάρις, "grace," is a one-word summary of God's saving act in Christ, stressing that salvation comes as a free gift to undeserving sinners. It is an enormously significant word in Paul's theology; of its 155 occurrences in the NT, 100 are in Paul's letters. In classical Greek it was a colorless word without religious connotations. It described something that brought pleasure or approval or something that was attractive (L. B. Smedes, ISBE 2:548; cf. especially the use of הן ḥēn, "to show favor, be gracious," in the OT; BDB, 336). Here too it was not especially a religious term, being used of both God and people (Burton, Galatians, 423). But Paul's use of the word shows a much deeper concept than "favor," being closer to חסד ḥesed, "steadfast kindness," "covenantal faithfulness," which, however, is translated by ἔλεος, "mercy," in the LXX (cf. Spicq, 1:317-18). This provides an excellent illustration of how the historical definition of a word, or its use in the LXX, has no necessary connection with its NT meaning. Paul chooses a neutral word devoid of any deep truth and fills it with his own understanding of God's gift of salvation. It can be defined only within the context of Paul's view of salvation (cf. use of ἀγάπη, "love," in 1 Tim 1:5).

χάρις, "grace," occurs thirteen times in the PE. Apart from salutations (1 Tim 1:2; 2 Tim 1:2; Titus 1:4), thanksgivings (1 Tim 1:12; 2 Tim 1:3), and final greetings (1 Tim 6:21; 2 Tim 4:22; Titus 3:15), grace is shown to be the basis for God saving Paul (1 Tim 1:14; cf. v 12; Rom 5:20), for God saving others (2 Tim 1:9; Titus 2:11), and for justification (Titus 3:7). Paul encourages Timothy to "be strong in the grace that is in Christ Jesus" (2 Tim 2:1). The expression of the concept is fully Pauline, especially as stated in 2 Tim 1:9 (God "saved us and called us with a holy calling, not in virtue of our works but in virtue of his own purpose and the grace which he gave us in Christ Jesus ages ago"). On χάρις, "grace," see summaries by Spicq, 1:318; Guthrie, New Testament Theology, 622; O'Brien, Colossians, 4-5; H. Conzelmann, TDNT 9:387-415; Trench, Synonyms, 225-26; W. Manson, "Grace in the New Testament," in The Doctrine of Grace, ed. W. T. Whitley (London: SCM Press, 1932) 33-60; J. Moffatt, Grace in the New Testament (New York: Long & Smith, 1932); and the bibliographies in BAGD 878; H. Conzelmann and A. Zimmerli, TDNT 9:372-73 n. 115.

“Mercy” (1 Tim 1:2)

ἔλεος, "mercy," describes acts of pity and help that are appropriate within a relationship between two people. In classical Greek, mercy was the response when something unfortunate and undeserved happened to someone (R. Bultmann, TDNT 2:477). It was an emotional response to a bad situation. But in the LXX it translates חסד ḥesed, and this association governs its meaning in the NT. N. Glueck argues that חסד ḥesed indicates not so much love and faithfulness as it does the conduct proper to the covenantal relationship between God and Israel (Hesed in the Bible [Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1967]; cf. N. H. Snaith, The Distinctive Ideas of the Old Testament [London: Epworth, 1944] 94-130; summary by R. L. Harris, TWOT 1:305-7). Mercy therefore primarily defines a relationship and secondarily elicits a response of pity to those within the relationship. Mercy is not a subjective emotion but an objective act appropriate for this relationship. This is why חסד ḥesed can also be translated by δικαιοσύνη, "righteousness," another term describing conduct appropriate to a certain relationship (cf. Ladd, Theology, 440; cf. Gen 19:19; 20:13; 21:23; 24:27; Prov 20:28). From this would naturally develop the association between God's mercy and his faithfulness, loyalty, and love. This also holds true when a person has mercy for another. It is not just that one should have mercy, but that one should act in a manner appropriate to the relationship and within that context have mercy (examples in E. R. Achtemeier, IDB 3:352-54; cf. Luke 1:58; 1 Pet 1:3). Because the biblical concept of mercy was governed by that of covenant, the concept of mercy developed the connotation of help or kindness that could be asked or requested of a superior, but never demanded (P. C. Craigie, EDT, 708). This accounts for the similarity between the biblical concepts of grace and mercy; both are gifts of God to an undeserving people. On the concept of mercy in the OT, see R. Bultmann, TDNT 2:479-81; E. R. Achtemeier, ISBE 3:352-53; Eichrodt, Theology, 232-39; H.-H. Esser, NIDNTT 2:594-95; Trench, Synonyms, 225-26.

Paul uses ἔλεος, "mercy," and ἐλεεῖν, "to be merciful," twenty-four times (Rom 12:8; 15:9; 1 Cor 7:25; 2 Cor 4:1; Gal 6:16; Eph 2:4; Phil 2:27), twelve in Rom 9-11 (Rom 9:15 [2x], 16, 18, 23; 11:30, 31 [2x], 32) and seven in the PE. Both sides of the theological coin evident in the OT are also found in Paul. On the one side, people cannot demand God's mercy (Rom 9-11); he is free to grant it as he wills. On the other, God's mercy will come to those who are in relationship with him. Thus letters can be started (1 Tim 1:2; 2 Tim 1:2; v.l. in Titus 1:4; cf. 1 Pet 1:3; 2 John 3; Jude 2) and ended (Gal 6:16) with a pronouncement of God's mercy. Since mercy is the appropriate conduct of God toward Christians, Paul says it is the basis of his own salvation (1 Tim 1:13, 16; cf. 1 Cor 7:25) and of others (Titus 3:5; cf. Eph 2:4; 1 Pet 1:3; especially Rom 11:32). It is both a present reality (2 Tim 1:16; cf. Phil 2:27) and a future hope (2 Tim 1:18; cf. Jas 2:13; Jude 21-23; summary in H.-H. Esser, NIDNTT 2:597).

“Peace” (1 Tim 1:2)

εἰρήνη, "peace," likewise describes an objective relationship between God and the believer. It is not so much an emotion or feeling as it is a reality. J. Murray, commenting on Rom 5:1, says that peace "is not the composure and tranquillity of our minds and hearts; it is the status of peace flowing from the reconciliation . . . and reflects primarily upon God's alienation from us and our instatement in his favor. Peace of heart and mind proceeds from ‘peace with God' and is the reflection in our consciousness of the relationship established by justification" (The Epistle to the Romans, NICNT [Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1968] 159). In classical Greek, εἰρήνη meant the cessation of war and eventually included the idea of peaceful relations. In the OT, שׁלום s̊ālôm describes the external absence of hostility and the ensuing general sense of well-being given by God (H. Beck and C. Brown, NIDNTT 2:777-79; G. Lloyd Carr, TWOT 2:930-32; E. M. Good, IDB 3:705-6). These primarily external definitions are found in the NT (H. Beck and C. Brown, NIDNTT 2:780), but here the word is charged with a christological significance. Peace is possessed by Christ and given to his followers (Stauffer, New Testament Theology, 143; cf. John 14:27). Because believers are justified (Rom 5:1), to be at peace with God is to be in the objective position of one who has been reconciled (Gal 5:22; Phil 4:7). From this objective stance develops the subjective feeling of peace. εἰρήνη, "peace," occurs in every epistolary salutation in the NT except James and 1 John as well as in many of the closings (Rom 16:20; 2 Cor 13:11; Gal 6:16; Eph 6:23; 1 Thess 5:23; 2 Thess 3:16; cf. Phil 4:9). Its only other occurrence in the PE is in 2 Tim 2:22, where it is part of a list of goals toward which Timothy is to strive, along with righteousness, faith, and love. It is commonly found in salutations in Semitic usage (references in Str-B 3:25; see also Stauffer, New Testament Theology, 143-46; Ridderbos, Theology, 182-86; G. von Rad and W. Foerster, TDNT 2:400-417; bibliography in H. Beck and C. Brown, NIDNTT 2:783).